Migrant women are particularly vulnerable

Women from culturally diverse backgrounds whether from new migrant or long settled communities face many of the same challenges as any other abused women. However, those new to New Zealand have more barriers to accessing resources and support (Ministry of Women’s Affairs, 2007a; 2007b; Tse, 2007). Women’s cultural and religious beliefs and their legal status can increase their vulnerability to abuse. There are a number of factors which contribute to the migrant women’s vulnerability to partner abuse. These include the following issues:

Family, face saving, faith, custom and fate

In many CALD migrant/refugee groups, the family is regarded as the unit of central importance. There is strong pressure to keep the family together and the strong sense of familialism can hinder women’s willingness to escape from, disclose, or report their partners’ abuse. This also works in reverse in that although it may hinder help-seeking, the strong sense of familialism can provide women with a sense of belonging, and may provide support and care from family members.

There is also strong pressure to avoid shaming the family, which is likely to hinder women’s efforts to seek outside help for “family” problems. These feelings can prevent them from taking action to protect themselves.

Strong religious beliefs that marriage is a sacred vow and cannot be broken also contribute to some women refusing to report partner abuse and to leave violent relationships.

A belief in fate has been identified as playing a significant role in CALD migrant/refugee women’s responses to partner abuse. Women may accept their partners’ violence as fate and believe (or be led to believe) that they have little control over it.

Religious belonging and faith are central to the lives of many migrant and refugee families and communities.

Strong social pressures in faith-based communities to not separate or divorce may mean that women endure abuse that is prolonged and severe before leaving (Khawaja, Linos et al. 2008).

A number of studies have found that faith provides survivors of family violence the strength for healing and allows many to accept themselves, let go, and move on with their lives (Hassouneh-Phillips, 2003).

It is essential that health professionals understand the significant influence that belief systems have on women, abusers, and their communities. Importantly, women’s religious beliefs can provide healing and reduce the occurrence of secondary victimisation.
Social Isolation and lack of family networks
Abusers, frequently use isolation to keep women from understanding their situation, from seeking help, and from leaving a violent relationship. Women’s self-sufficiency challenges abusers’ dominance and control (Midlarsky et al., 2006).

New migrant women are particularly vulnerable when socially isolated in a new society because they leave their networks of family and friends behind when they migrate. Prior to migration, many Asian, Middle Eastern and African women have lived in extended families who provide social support, including emotional comfort, material support, and the constant presence of a family network (Kasturirangan et al., 2004). As a result of migration, most women lack the support of kin and non-kin social networks that would be available in their country of origin. This isolation can enhance feelings of helplessness and despair, leaving migrant women with little access to the outer world (Midlarsky, 2006).

Raj and Silverman (2003) showed that women reporting no family in the United States were three times more likely than those with family to have been physically injured by their current partner.

Family values

Cultural attitudes towards violence, and towards separation and divorce, and the desire to ‘keep the family together’ may pressure a woman to remain with her violent partner.

In Asian, Middle Eastern and African cultures, when marital conflicts occur, older family members frequently serve as mediators or inhibitors of violence (Kasturirangan et al., 2004; Yoshioka et al., 2001). Extended families may serve as a buffer to partner violence, providing social support, financial resources, child care, and protection for women (Lee & Hadeed, 2009).

However, conflict with in-laws or in-law abuse (eg from a mother-in-law) has been found to be an additional risk factor relating to family violence in Asian communities (Bhuyan et al., 2005; Dasgupta, 2000; Fernandez, 1997; Lee & Hadeed, 2009; Ryu, 2010).

Dependency through low or no English language and literacy skills

Women who are new migrants may experience heightened dependency economically and emotionally, on their spouses (Kasturirangan et al., 2004). Tactics such as hindering women from learning English, curtailing their social activities, and providing inadequate financial support are used as a means of control. In extreme cases, women may be forbidden from leaving the home (Abraham, 2000; Dasgupta, 2000).

Uncertainty around accessing help

Social isolation combined with the lack of awareness of family violence services prevents abused migrant women from seeking help (Yoshioka et al., 2003). A lack of knowledge around how to access alternative housing, income, legal and support services make it difficult for women to leave their partners (Lay, 2006). Additionally, women may be unaware of the New Zealand laws prohibiting family violence and therefore unaware of their rights under New Zealand law.

Forced Marriage

Forced marriage has been identified as an emerging issue in New Zealand in some migrant communities. Forced marriage is defined by Police, Child Youth and Family, Work and Income and Family and Community Services (Ministry of Social Development) and the Ministry of Education in a letter of Agreement (2012) as:

...when a marriage is conducted without the valid consent of both parties where duress is a factor. Duress may include physical, psychological, financial, sexual and emotional pressure. Duress may occur prior to and during the arrangement of a forced marriage and continue once it has taken place.

A letter of agreement between Immigration New Zealand Police, Child Youth and Family, Work and Income and Family and Community Services (service lines of the Ministry of Social Development) and the Ministry of Education (2012) outlines an inter-agency response for victims of forced marriage in New Zealand. The Letter of Agreement sets out each agency’s commitment to supporting victims, their policy and procedures in response to forced marriage, and how the response will be coordinated between agencies. The letter of agreement can be accessed on the New Zealand Police website.